"MORAL CATECHISM" (1798) - Noah Webster

From Noah Webster's, "The American Spelling Book" (Boston. 1798), pp. 145-52.




A Moral Catechism: Or Lessons for Saturday




Question. What is moral virtue?


Answer. It is an honest upright conduct in all our dealings with men.


Q. Can we always determine what is honest and just?


A. Perhaps not in every instance, but in general it is not difficult.


Q. What rules have we to direct us?


A. God's word contained in the Bible has furnished all necessary rules to direct our conduct.


Q. In what part of the Bible are these rules to be found?


A. In almost every part; but the most important duties between men are summed up in the beginning of Matthew, in Christ's Sermon on the Mount.


Of Humility


Q. What is humility?


A. A lowly temper of mind.


Q. What are the advantages of humility?


A. The advantages of humility in this life are very numerous and great. The humble man has few or no enemies. Every one loves him and is ready to do him good. If he is rich and prosperous, people do not envy him; if he is poor and unfortunate, every one pities him, and is disposed to alleviate his distresses.


Q. What is pride?


A. A lofty high minded disposition.


Q. Is pride commendable?


A. By no means. A modest self-approving opinion of our own good deeds is very right. It is natural; it is agreeable; and a spur to good actions. But we should not suffer our hearts to be blown up with pride, whatever great and good deeds we have done; for pride brings upon us the will of mankind, and displeasure of our Maker.


Of Mercy


Q. What is mercy?


A. It is tenderness of heart.


Q. What are the advantages of this virtue?


A. The exercise of it tends to happify every one about us. Rulers of a merciful temper will make their good subjects happy; and will not torment the bad, with needless severity. Parents and masters will not abuse their children and servants with harsh treatment. More love, more confidence, more happiness, will subsist among men, and of course society will be happier.


Of Justice


Q. What is justice?


A. It is giving to every man his due.


Q. Is it always easy to know what is just?


A. It is generally easy; and where -there is any difficulty in determining, let a man consult the golden rule--"To do to others, what he could reasonably wish they should do to him, in the same circumstances."


Of Truth


Q. What is truth?


A. It is speaking and acting agreeable to fact.


Q. Is it a duty to speak truth at all times?


A. If we speak at all, we should tell the truth. It is not always necessary to tell what we know. There are many things which concern ourselves and others, which we had better not publish to the world.


Of Charity and Giving Alms


Q. What is charity?


A. It signifies giving to the poor, or it is a favorable opinion of men and their actions.


Q. When and how far is it our duty to give to the poor?


A. When others really want what we can spare without material injury to ourselves, it is our duty to give them something to relieve their wants.


Q. When persons are reduced to want by their own laziness and vices, by drunkenness, gambling and the like, is it a duty to relieve them?


A. In general it is not. The man who gives money and provisions to a lazy vicious man, becomes a partaker of his guilt. Perhaps it may be right, to give such a man a meal of victuals to keep him from starving, and it is certainly right to feed his wife and family, and make them comfortable.


Of Avarice


Q. What is avarice?


A. An excessive desire of gaining wealth.


Q. Is this commendable?


A. It is not; but one of the meanest of vices. ...


Of Frugality and Economy


Q. What is the distinction between frugality and avarice?


A. Frugality is a prudent saving of property from needless waste. Avarice gathers more and spends less than is wanted.


Q. What is economy?


A. It is frugality in expenses--it is a prudent management of one's estate. It disposes of property for useful purposes without waste.


Q. How far does true economy extend?


A. To the saving of every thing which it is not necessary to spend for comfort and convenience; and the keeping one's expenses within his income or earnings.


Q. What is wastefulness?


A. It is the spending of money for what is not wanted. If a man drinks a dram, which is not necessary for him, or buys a cane which he does not want, he wastes his money. He injures himself, as much as if he had thrown away his money.


Of Industry


Q. What is industry?


A. It is a diligent attention to business in our several occupations.


Q. Is labour a curse or a blessing?


A. Hard labor or drudgery is often a curse by making life toilsome and painful. But constant moderate labor is the greatest blessing.


Q. Why then do people complain of it?


A. Because they do not know the evils of not labouring. Labor keeps the body in health, and makes men relish all their enjoyments. "The sleep of the laboring man is sweet," so is his food. He walks cheerfully and whistling about his fields or shop, and scarcely knows pain. The rich and indolent first lose their health for want of action--They turn pale, their bodies are enfeebled, they lose their appetite for food and sleep, they yawn out a tasteless stupid life without pleasure, and often useless to the world.


Noah Webster, 1798

"FEDERAL CATECHISM" (1798) - Noah Webster

By Noah Webster from "The American Spelling Book" (Boston, 1798), pp. 154-55.


A Federal Catechism (Containing a Short EXPLANATION of the CONSTITUTION of the UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, and the PRINCIPLES of GOVERNMENT) for the Use of Schools


Q. What is a constitution of government?


A. A constitution of government, or a political constitution, consists in certain standing rules or ordinances, agreed upon by a nation or state, determining the manner in which the supreme power shall be exercised over that nation or state, or rather how the legislative body shall be formed.


Q. How many kinds of constitutions are there; or in how many ways may the sovereign power be exercised over a people?


A. Constitutions are commonly divided into three kinds; monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy.


Q. Explain the sorts of government.


A. When the sovereign power is exercised by one person, the constitution is a monarchy. When a few rich men, or nobles, have the whole supreme power in their hands, the constitution is an aristocracy. When the supreme power is exercised by all the citizens, in a general meeting or assembly, the constitution is a democracy.


Q. What are the faults of despotic governments?


A. In a despotic government, a whole nation is at the disposal of one person. If this person, the prince, is of a cruel or tyrannical disposition, he may abuse his subjects, take away their lives, their property, or their liberty.


Q. What objections are there to aristocracy?


A. In an aristocracy, where a few rich men govern, the poor may be oppressed, the nobles may make laws to suit themselves and ruin the common people. Besides, the nobles, having equal power one with another, may quarrel and throw the state into confusion; in this case there is no person of superior power to settle the dispute.


Q. What are the defects of democracy?


A. In democracy, where the people all meet for the purpose of making laws, there are commonly tumults and disorders. A small city may sometimes be governed in this manner; but if the citizens are numerous, their assemblies make a crowd or mob, where debates cannot be carried on with coolness and candor, nor can arguments be heard: Therefore a pure democracy is generally a very bad government. It is often the most tyrannical government on earth; for a multitude is often rash, and will not hear reason.


Q. Is there another and better form of government than any of these?


A. There is. A representative republic, in which the people freely choose deputies to make laws for them, is much the best form of government hitherto invented.


Q. What are the peculiar advantages of representative governments?


A. When deputies or representatives are chosen to make laws, they will commonly consult the interest of the people who choose them, and if they do not, the people can choose others in their room. Besides, the deputies coming from all parts of a state, bring together all the knowledge and information necessary to show the true interest of the whole state; at the same time, being but few in number, they can hear arguments and debate peaceably on a subject. But the great security of such a government is, that the men who make laws, are to be governed by them; so that they are not apt to do wrong willfully. When men make laws for themselves, as well as for their neighbors, they are led by their own interest to make good laws.


Q. Which of the forms or kinds of government is adopted by the American States?


A. The states are all governed by constitutions that fall under the name of representative republics. The people choose deputies to act for them in making laws; and in general, the deputies, when assembled, have as full power to make and repeal laws, as the whole body of freemen would have, if they were collected for the same purpose.


Noah Webster, 1798

Providence - American Dictionary of the English Language - 1828

Providence as defined by Noah Webster in his American Dictionary of the English Language - 1828


PROVIDENCE

In theology, the care and superintendence which God exercises over his creatures. He that acknowledges a creation and denies a providence, involves himself in a palpable contradiction; for the same power which caused a thing to exist is necessary to continue its existence. Some persons admit a general providence, but deny a particular providence, not considering that a general providence consists of particulars. A belief in divine providence, is a source of great consolation to good men. By divine providence is often understood God himself.

PROVIDENTIAL

Effected by the Providence of God; referable to divine providence; proceeding from divine direction or superintendence; as the providential contrivance of things; a providential escape from danger. 

How much are we indebted to God's unceasing providential care!    Woodward

PROVIDENTIALLY

By means of God's providence.

Every animal is providentially directed to the  use of its proper weapons.    Ray

Robert Nicholas Carter 1715 - 1780

Robert Nicholas Carter was a representative of James City serving in the Virginia House of Burgesses. He was appointed as Judge of the High Court of Chancery and Court of Appeals. As a member of the Committees of Correspondence, he attended all major conventions. Furthermore, Robert Carter served as President Pro-tem of the Continental Congress in 1775.


The Port of Boston was closed by the British Navy in retaliation for the rebellious act of the Sons of Liberty - throwing tea into Boston Harbor in protest of arbitrary taxation.


The surrounding colonies were sympathetic with the colony of Massachusetts and responded with action.


Robert Carter, Treasurer of the Virginia House of Burgesses proposed a day of Fasting, Humiliation and Prayer on May 24, 1773. The proposal was approved with little opposition.

This House, being deeply impressed with apprehension of the great dangers to be derived to British America from the hostile invasion of the city of Boston in our Sister Colony of Massachusetts Bay, whose commerce and harbor are, on the first day of June next, to be stopped by an armed force, deem it highly necessary that the said first day of June be set apart, by the members of this House, as a Day of Fasting, Humiliation and Prayer, devoutly to implore the Divine interposition, for averting the heavy calamity which threatens destruction to our civil rights and the evils of civil war,

to give us one heart and mind firmly opposed, by all just and proper means, every injury to American rights;

and that the minds of His Majesty and his Parliament, may be inspired from above with wisdom, moderation and justice, to remove from the loyal people of America all cause of danger from a continued pursuit of measures pregnant with their ruin."

John Dickinson 1732 - 1808

John Dickinson was a signer of the Constitution of the United States of America. Furthermore, he was a member of the Continental Congress and wrote the first draft of the Articles of Confederation. He was President of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania and a lawyer, planter, and state legislator.

In 1773, John Dickinson became the founder of Dickinson College in the city of Carlisle, Pennsylvania. He was well known among the Philadelphia Society of Friends also known as the Quakers as one who gave generously gave his finances to improve their educational pursuits.

He defended the authority of the Holy Scriptures and wrote persuasive letters concerning sound evidences of Christianity. Dickinson wrote a series of letters under the pen-name of "Fabius" campaigning for the passage of the Constitution. His correspondence in this matter we a major factor that contributed to Delaware and Pennsylvania becoming the first two states to ratify the United States Constitution.

John Dickinson is best noted as "The Penman of the Revolution." His pamphlets were circulated widely and became a motivating factor in the cause of liberty.

He was the author of the following pamphlets:

Petition to the King, 1771

The Declaration and Resolves of the First Continental Congress, 1774

The Declaration of the Cause of Taking up Arms, 1775

Letter from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, 

Letter from a Farmer in Pennsylvania was his most stirring pamphlet.

"But while Divine Providence, that gave me existence in a land of freedom, permits my head to think, my lips to speak, and my hand to move, I shall so highly and gratefully value the blessing received as to take care that my silence and inactivity shall not give my implied assent to my act, degrading my brethren and myself from the birthright, wherever heaven itself "hath made us free."...

I pray God that he may be pleased to inspire you and your posterity, to the latest ages, with a spirit of which I have an idea, that I find a difficulty to express.
I express it in the best manner I can, I mean a spirit that shall so guide you that it will be impossible to determine whether an American's character is most distinguishable for his loyalty to his Sovereign, his duty to his mother country, his love of freedom, or his affection for his native soil...

But, above all, let us implore the protection of that infinitely good and gracious Being [Proverbs 8:15] "by whom kings reign, and princes decree justice."
A communication of her rights in general, and particularly of that great one, the foundation of all the rest - or to use the beautiful and emphatic language of the sacred scriptures [Micah 4:4] "that they should sit every man under his vine, and under his fig-tree, and NONE SHOULD MAKE THEM AFRAID..."

But whatever kind of minister he is, that attempts to innovate a single iota in the privileges of these colonies, him I hope you will undauntedly oppose; and that you will never suffer yourselves to be cheated or frightened into any unworthy obsequiousness.
On such emergencies you may surely, without presumption, believe that ALMIGHTY GOD himself will look upon your righteous contest with gracious approbation."

John Dickinson bid farewell to the government of England while in the Continental Congress in 1776.

"The happiness of these Colonies has been, during the whole course of this fatal controversy, our first wish, their reconciliation with Great Britain our next: ardently have we prayed for the accomplishment of both.
But if we must renounce the one or the other, we humbly trust in the mercies of the Supreme Governor of the universe that we shall not stand condemned before His throne if our choice is determined by that law of self-preservation which his Divine wisdom has seen fit to implant in the hearts of His creatures."

Dickinson met with the delegates of Pennsylvania to the Continental Congress less than two months before they signed the Declaration of Independence. He suggested requirements which  the delegates should subscribe to before being seated in the Continental Congress. The following statement is a stipulation that he recommended:

"I do profess faith in God the Father, and in Jesus Christ his eternal Son the true God, and in the Holy Spirit, one God blessed for evermore, and I do acknowledge the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments to be given by Divine inspiration."

The following quote is from The Liberty Song which John Dickinson wrote in 1768.

"Then join hand in hand, brave Americans all!
By uniting we stand, by dividing we fall"

Response of the Convention to Benjamin Franklin's Speech

Jonathan Dayton, delegate from New Jersey, reported the response of the Constitutional Convention at Independence Hall in Philadelphia Pennsylvania.

"The Doctor sat down, and never did I behold a countenance at once so dignified and delighted as was that of Washington at the close of the address; nor were the members of the convention generally less affected. The words of the venerable Franklin fell upon our ears with a weight and authority, even greater than we may suppose an oracle to have had in a Roman Senate."

After Benjamin Franklin made his historical speech, James Madison moved the motion. Roger Sherman of Connecticut seconded the motion for Dr. Franklin's appeal for prayer be enacted. Edmund Jennings Randolph of Virginia further moved:

"That a sermon be preached at the request of the convention on the 4th of July, the anniversary of Independence; & thenceforward prayers be used in ye Convention every morning."

Ever since the enactment of Franklin's motion, prayers have opened both houses of Congress ever since this historic event.


The clergy of the city of Philadelphia cordially responded to the request and a profound change took place among the delegates at the Convention as they reconvened on July 2, 1787. Jonathan Dayton recorded the following statement:

"We assembled again; and...every unfriendly feeling had been expelled, and a spirit of conciliation had been cultivated."

The entire body of delegates to the Constitutional Convention assembled in the Reformed Calvinistic Church on July 4, 1787 as proposed by Edmund Jennings Randolph of Virginia. Reverend William Rogers preached a sermon; his prayer reflected the hearts of the delegates in response to Franklin's admonition.

"We fervently recommend to the fatherly notice...our federal convention. Favor them, from day to day, with thy inspiring presence; be their wisdom and strength; enable them to devise such measures as may prove happy instruments in healing all divisions and prove the good of the great whole;...that the United States of America may from one example of a free and virtuous government...

"May we...continue, under the influence of republican virtue, to partake of all the blessings of cultivated and Christian society."

Franklin's Speech to the Constitutional Convention

This powerful message was delivered on June 28, 1787 during the Constitutional Convention at Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The Convention was embroiled in serious bitter debate concerning the means by which each state would be represented in the new government. Some delegates actually left the Convention due to hostile feelings which were the result of smaller states pitted against larger states. At the age of 81, Franklin, the senior member of the Convention commanded the respect of the other delegates. As Franklin rose to address the Convention in this moment of crisis, James Madison recorded Franklin's speech.

Mr. President:
The small progress we have made after four or five weeks close attendance & continual reasonings with each other - our different sentiments on almost every question, several of the last producing as many noes as ayes, is methinks a melancholy proof of the imperfection of the Human Understanding.

We indeed seem to feel our own want of political wisdom, since we have been running about in search of it. We have gone back to ancient models of government, and examined the different forms of those Republics which, having been formed with the seeds of their own dissolution, now no longer exist. And we have viewed Modern States all round Europe, but find none of their Constitutions suitable to our circumstances.

In this situation of this Assembly, groping as it were in the dark to find political truth, and scarce able to distinguish it when presented to us, how has it happened, Sir, that we have not hitherto once thought of humbly applying to the Father of lights to illuminate our understanding?
In the beginning of the Contest with Great Britain, when we were sensible of danger, we had daily prayer in this room for Divine protection. - Our prayers, Sir, were heard, & they were graciously answered. All of us who were engaged in the struggle must have observed frequent instances of a superimposing Providence in our favor.

To that kind Providence we owe this happy opportunity of consulting in peace on the means of establishing our future national felicity. And have we now forgotten that powerful Friend? or do we imagine that an empire can rise without His aid?

We have been assured, Sir, in the Sacred Writings [the Holy Bible], that "except the Lord build the House, they labor in vain that build it." I firmly believe this, and I also believe that without his concurring aid we shall succeed in this political building no better than the Builders of Babel: We shall be divided by our partial local interests; our projects will be confounded, and we ourselves shall become a reproach and bye word down to future ages.

And what is worse, mankind may hereafter from this unfortunate instance, despair of establishing Governments by Human wisdom and leave it to chance, war, and conquest.

I therefore beg leave to move - that henceforth prayers imploring the assistance of Heaven, and its blessing on our deliberations, be held in this Assembly every morning before we proceed to business, and that one or more of the clergy of this city be requested to officiate in that service."

Benjamin Franklin, Governor of the State of Pennsylvania, Delegate to the Constitutional Convention.